When you use an automated teller machine to withdraw money from your bank account, you are using a database. When a travel agent makes an airline reservation for you, she is using a database. When a telephone operator gives you a phone number, he is using a database. Any significant collections of information stored on computers are virtually always organized as databases. Databases dealing with published information usually found in libraries, such as books, articles and other types of documents, are commonly called bibliographic databases. Until recently, bibliographic databases have been primarily access tools. Access tools--such as catalogs and indexes--do not give you the actual book, article or other material with the full information you'll need for your research; they give you enough information to find that material. As you'll learn later in this chapter, it is now more and more common to find databases that go beyond just access tools and include the full text or other information from articles, books or other documents. Understanding the elements of databases and how they work is a key to accessing information in the information age.

Earlier we defined a database simply as a collection of information organized in a systematic form so that specific pieces of the information can be easily accessed. If we take the books in a library and list the title, author and subject(s) of each book, we have a collection of information that can be organized as a database. The trick is to use a form of organization that can make it easy to find all of the books on a specific subject or by a particular author.

All databases are organized by two basic elements: records and fields.

Records are the units of information that can be retrieved. In our library example, all of the information describing each book is a record. In a perioidcal database, a record is all of the information for one article (the citation, abstract and full-text, if available).

Fields are the different parts of a record by which the record is retrievable. The fields in our example are title, author and subject. Let's look at how records and fields are arranged in a very limited library database.

	(FIELD 1) AUTHOR	(FIELD 2) TITLE	(FIELD 3) SUBJECT(S)
RECORD 1	HYMAN, RICHARD	INFORMATION ACCESS	ONLINE BIBLIOGRAPHIC SEARCHING; BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SERVICES; CATALOGING--HISTORY
RECORD 2	MOSCO, VINCENT	THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF INFORMATION	COMMUNICATION; INFORMATION SCIENCE--ECONOMIC ASPECTS; MASS MEDIA
RECORD 3	SAXBY, STEPHEN	THE AGE OF INFORMATION	COMPUTERS AND CIVILIZATION; INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY--SOCIAL ASPECTS
RECORD 4	TECHRANIAN, MAJID	TECHNOLOGIES OF POWER	INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY--SOCIAL ASPECTS; DEMOCRACY
RECORD 5	TUCKER, FRANK	THE FRONTIER SPIRIT AND PROGRESS	CIVILIZATION, MODERN--1950- ; MASS MEDIA; PROGRESS
RECORD 6	WOODWARD, KATHLEEN	THE MYTHS OF INFORMATION	TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION; INFORMATION THEORY; MASS MEDIA

You can see that in this simple database, each line of information is a record and each column of information represents a field. When information is organized in this way in a computerized database, the process of retrieving information can be automated.

Let's see what actually happens when we try to access information in this computerized database. There are two basic methods commonly used to retrieve records from a database. The first method involves looking through an alphabetical list of all of the words in a particular field. In database terminology, such a list is called an "index." In our simplified database, the subject "index" would look like this:

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SERVICES
CATALOGING--HISTORY
CIVILIZATION, MODERN--1950-
COMMUNICATION
COMPUTERS AND CIVILIZATION
DEMOCRACY
INFORMATION SCIENCE--ECONOMIC ASPECTS
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY--SOCIAL ASPECTS
INFORMATION THEORY
MASS MEDIA
ONLINE BIBLIOGRAPHIC SEARCHING
PROGRESS
TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION

In order to find all of the records on a specific subject, such as "mass media", we could simply look through the subject index to see if that subject is listed. If we find a subject in the index, we know that there are records on this subject in the database and we can simply select that subject in order to view all of the records on the subject. If we select MASS MEDIA from this index, the database program displays the following records:

	(FIELD 1) AUTHOR	(FIELD 2) TITLE	(FIELD 3) SUBJECT(S)
RECORD 1	MOSCO, VINCENT	THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF INFORMATION	COMMUNICATION; INFORMATION SCIENCE--ECONOMIC ASPECTS; MASS MEDIA
RECORD 2	TUCKER, FRANK	THE FRONTIER SPIRIT AND PROGRESS	CIVILIZATION, MODERN--1950- ; MASS MEDIA; PROGRESS
RECORD 3	WOODWARD, KATHLEEN	THE MYTHS OF INFORMATION	TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION; INFORMATION THEORY; MASS MEDIA

This process of looking through an index to find the right word(s) to retrieve specific records is commonly called "browsing" an index. Browsing an index is especially useful when you are not sure what word(s) to use for a search.

The second method of accessing records-- commonly called "keyword searching"-- does not display an index. A "keyword search" simply looks for all of the records that contain the given word or words-- sometimes called "keyword(s)" or "search term(s)". A "keyword search" may or may not be limited to a specified field or group of fields. If we do a "keyword search" for "information" in all of the fields in our database, the computer looks for any appearance of the word, "information", anywhere in any record. All of the records containing "information" are then copied into a new list, or "set", of records. The resulting set is shown below:

	(FIELD 1) AUTHOR	(FIELD 2) TITLE	(FIELD 3) SUBJECT(S)
RECORD 1	HYMAN, RICHARD	INFORMATION ACCESS	ONLINE BIBLIOGRAPHIC SEARCHING; BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SERVICES; CATALOGING--HISTORY
RECORD 2	MOSCO, VINCENT	THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF INFORMATION	COMMUNICATION; INFORMATION SCIENCE--ECONOMIC ASPECTS; MASS MEDIA
RECORD 3	SAXBY, STEPHEN	THE AGE OF INFORMATION	COMPUTERS AND CIVILIZATION; INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY--SOCIAL ASPECTS
RECORD 4	TECHRANIAN, MAJID	TECHNOLOGIES OF POWER	INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY--SOCIAL ASPECTS; DEMOCRACY
RECORD 5	WOODWARD, KATHLEEN	THE MYTHS OF INFORMATION	TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION; INFORMATION THEORY; MASS MEDIA

This illustrates the most basic process of "database searching"-- that is, looking up information using a computerized database. Notice that it is essentially a system of matching words. The searcher must come up with the right word (or combination of words) that exactly match the same word(s) within the records that are needed. The "browse" method uses an index in a database to help identify the desired search term in a specific field. The "keyword search" method looks directly for records containing the given search terms without displaying an index and without necessarily limiting the search to a specific field.

It is important to realize that computers do not "understand" anything you type into them. They simply do very quick matching of the characters you enter. You can't expect the computer to automatically understand exactly what you are looking for and then give you just the information you need. In order to be effective in accessing information from computers, you need to keep in mind the basic way databases function. It is very important to 1) first choose the best word(s) to use for a search and 2) then analyze the data that the computer provides in order to refine your search.

Access Tools

Our database example is actually a reduced and simplified version of one common type of library database-- a computerized catalog, usually called an online catalog. A catalog is also a type of access tool. Other access tools include periodical indexes and abstracts. An access tool is a computerized database or print source that helps you find the book, article, document, audiovisual or other material that you need. It does not include the actual material you'll read or view, but it gives you the information you'll need to access that material. After you use an access tool, you must then retrieve the actual book, article or other material by either finding it in a library (or bookstore) or ordering it to be sent to you--typically through a library interlibrary loan service or through a commercial document delivery service. (See for more information on interlibrary loan and document delivery services.)

Online Catalogs

Online catalogs generally list all of the books in a particular library or group of libraries. They are computerized versions of card catalogs, which have traditionally been used for the same purpose. In our simple book database, the information in each record-- just author, title and subject for each book-- contains quite a bit less information than most actual catalogs. In a typical catalog, each record usually contains not only author, title and subject information, but also other information such as the publisher, place of publication, publication date and the book's call number. The call number is the set of letters and numbers on the spine of the book that indicate where the book is located on the library shelves. By including the call number, the online catalog gives you the information you need to access the book--to find the book on the shelf. When a record consists of this type of basic information about a book or article, it is commonly called a citation. Databases made up exclusively of citations are generally the simplest types of bibliographic databases since each citation includes only the most essential information about a book or other document. The following is an example of a citation from the University of California online catalog, called Melvyl:

Author: Bender, David R. Title: National information policies : strategies for the future /David R. Bender, Sarah T. Kadec, Sandy I. Morton. Washington, DC : Special Libraries Association, c1991.

Description: iv, 62 p. ; 28 cm.Series: SLA occasional papers series ; no. 2. Notes: Includes bibliographical references (p. 48-58).

Subjects: Information services and state -- United States. Information science -- Government policy -- United States.

Other entries: Kadec, Sarah T. Morton-Schwalb, Sandy I.

Call numbers: UCB LibSchLib Z678.2 .B45 1991

Periodical databases

Indexes to articles in magazines, newspapers or journals are another common access tool made up primarily of citations. Many of these indexes are available in computerized form. Since magazines, newspapers and journals are all referred to in libraries as "periodicals" (publications that are published "periodically"), databases that list articles from these types of publications are commonly referred to as periodical indexes. (Be sure not to confuse the different uses of the word "index." "Index" is used here to describe a general type of database as distinguished from the use of "index" when referring to the part of a database described previously, i.e., an alphabetical list of all of the words in a particular field.) A typical citation in an index to magazine articles consists of the author, title and page numbers of the article and the title, date and volume number of the magazine. Occasionally, if the title does not identify the content of the article, a brief amount of description will be added (usually in parentheses after the title), as in the following example of a citation from Academic Index database (published by Information Access):

Bewildering the herd. (interview with Noam Chomsky on the mass media industry) by Rick Szykowny il v50 The Humanist Nov-Dec '90 p8(10) 57E3601

In addition to the basic citation data for each article, most periodical databases include abstracts--short summaries of the articles. Abstracts are generally from a couple of sentences to a few paragraphs in length and are included in each record following the basic citation. In databases that include abstracts, the text of the abstract usually makes up a separate field. When searching for articles on a particular subject in an abstract database, a researcher can search for a particular keyword or words, not only in the subject or title fields, but anywhere in the entire abstract. Although periodical databases are the most common type of database that includes abstracts, other types of databases may also include abstracts. One well-known abstract database that is not a periodical database is Dissertation Abstracts, which includes summaries of doctoral dissertations and masters theses. The following example is a record from Periodical Abstracts database (published by UMI):

92239317

Title: Why the Old Media's Losing Ground
Authors: Alter, Jonathan
Journal: Newsweek Vol: 119 Iss: 23 Date: Jun 8, 1992 pp: 28
Jrnl Code: GNEW ISSN: 0028-9604 Jrnl Group: News

Abstract: The mainstream media seems to have lost control of the 1992 presidential election and is splitting into two parts: Old Media, which consists of network TV, big newspapers and magazines, public TV and elite journalists, and New Media, which includes the less elitist and more democratic CNN, C-Span, infotainment talk shows, computer bulletin boards and satellite hookups. Photograph

Subjects: Presidential elections; Mass media
Type: Commentary
Length: Medium (10-30 col inches)

Access Tools vs. Full-Text Databases

Catalogs and index and abstract databases are considered access tools since they just provide citation or summary information--but not the full text of the document. As computer technology has rapidly increased in speed and storage capacity over the last decade, it has become common to find databases that include the full text of documents as part of the database itself. Databases that include the full documents are called full-text databases.

Full-Text Databases

In recent years, full-text databases have become the most popular type of database. As the name implies, records in full-text databases include the complete text of the articles or other types of documents included in the database. The most common examples of full-text databases are computerized encyclopedias and newspaper databases. Many general periodical databases now include the full-text of growing numbers of the periodicals in the databases. More scholarly and academic journals have been slower to be produced in full-text format but they are also becoming increasingly available online. One advantage of most full-text databases is that all of the words in the entire text of the articles can be searched to find just those articles containing specified keywords. The following example is a relatively short full-text record from the InfoTrac OneFile periodical database:

Academic Exchange Quarterly, Winter 2002 v6 i4 p2(1) Information literacy: not just a buzzword. (Editorial). (Editorial) Elizabeth Blakesley Lindsay. Full Text: COPYRIGHT 2002 Academic Exchange Quarterly Information literacy: not just a buzzword. When the term "information literacy" emerged in the library field, many believed it was merely another round of changing buzzwords. For a field that was in the throes of switching terminology from "bibliographic instruction" to "library instruction," this was understandable. However, information literacy is much more than bibliographic instruction or library instruction. As defined by the Association of College and Research Libraries and many other groups and institutions, information literate people can identify their information need, identify sources to use to find pertinent information, use those resources efficiently, locate the information, evaluate it critically, and use it ethically. Information literacy also emphasizes helping people to become lifelong learners. It also encourages training and practice in research and information seeking as a whole process, from definition of topic to finding information, from evaluating the information to communicating it to others. For librarians, information literacy has provided a chance to transform source-based library or bibliographic instruction, which in the past often provided students with a set of print or electronic library resources instead of teaching them how to locate the materials themselves. The tenets of information literacy provide possibilities for programs which will equip people with the tools they need to seek information - not just for the immediate project, but for any future information need in any area. Information literacy programs give librarians a chance to work with faculty to design and deliver more cohesive instruction sessions which incorporate critical thinking and encourage transferability of skills. Given this era of information overload, critical thinking skills are more important than ever. Incorporating information literacy components into existing curricula allow students to learn more than just which link to click or where the library keeps the magazine. For example, from a partnership of the librarian and the instructor, students can learn how to identify and refine a search strategy, use print and electronic sources to locate information, learn to evaluate sources for authority, credibility, bias and currency, learn to cite materials, and finally, have an opportunity to use the information for a paper or presentation. With an emphasis on skills and strategy rather than sources, it is more likely that students will retain and transfer their skills to projects for other courses or to real-life information needs. The articles included in this issue pull together a variety of approaches to information literacy. From smaller community college settings to larger research universities, librarians across the United States and Canada are working together and with faculty to provide more meaningful experiences for students. These authors have provided examples of programs which can serve as models for other libraries and have raised issues which many of us face. I hope that librarians find these articles useful, but also that teaching faculty are inspired to work with the librarians at their institutions in new ways.

Blurred Distinctions

The distinctions between different bibliographic database types is not always very precise because it is increasingly common to find databases that include different types of records. Many periodical databases that originally only included citations, now include abstracts in most records and the full-text of articles from a portion of the indexed periodicals.

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These materials may be used for educational purposes if you inform and credit the author and cite the source as: LSCI 106 Online Research. All commercial rights are reserved. To contact the author, send comments or suggestions, email: Eric Brenner at brenner@smccd.net